Scapegoats, quackery, and resistance: the predictable responses to a pandemic
Conspiracy theories about pandemics are timeless and have followed the same patterns over the centuries. Timo Greve and Joris Roosen's research into pandemic conspiracy theories demonstrates this.
Conspiracy theories accompanied every pandemic since the Middle Ages. Just a few examples: the Corona pandemic is the fault of Asians, whereas sodomites caused the plague epidemics. Injecting bleach protects against the coronavirus, whereas tying a live plucked chicken to your body combats the plague. Corona and the Spanish flu are the result of out-of-control biological weapon experiments. Face masks and, most notably, vaccines against smallpox, flu, and coronavirus are more dangerous than the disease itself.
Joris Roosen, a history lecturer at University College Maastricht, and his student Timo Greve searched the archives for pandemic conspiracy theories. Roosen also serves as the scientific director of the Centre for the Social History of Limburg, which is affiliated with the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences.
Obvious response
Conspiracy theories have emerged with each epidemic over the centuries, falling into three categories: the search for scapegoats (Asians and sodomites), alternative treatments (bleach and chickens), and resistance to the establishment and the solutions it offers (biological weapons and vaccine risks). According to Joris, the development of these theories usually follows a sort of chronological order. "Logically, you look for a scapegoat first, and then you look for an immediate solution. I believe this is a natural process. People want to regain a sense of self-determination and control.
The first two variants of a conspiracy theory stem from a desire for self-determination and protection, which leads to a search for solutions, even if they are quackery. If a solution is proposed, such as self-protection with face masks or vaccines, you can expect it to be widely accepted. This has not been the case since the Middle Ages; whenever some authority offers solutions, resistance arises, which encourages conspiracy theories. Timo: "Resistance to solutions or the government is another way in which people defend themselves against a disease or any other major event, like 9/11.”
Resistance to solutions or the government is another way in which people defend themselves against a disease or any other major event, like 9/11.
Timo GreveGovernment as conspiracy theorist
Conspiracy theories are not only used by citizens; the government is also capable of them, as Timo and Joris demonstrate. For example, the Dutch government labelled people who refused the Corona vaccine as 'wappies' and 'super spreaders'. This also happened to people in the nineteenth century, such as the Irish cook 'Typhoid Mary', who is said to have brought typhoid to the United States. Joris: "In the Netherlands, the government promised that society would be unlocked once everyone was vaccinated. They reasoned that although most people got the vaccine, we could not unlock because a small group of denialists continued to spread the disease. We know from virology that it does not work in that manner."
During the Corona pandemic, US President Trump played a key role in spreading conspiracy theories. "His presidency coincided with the rise of movements like QAnon, which targeted the establishment by spreading right-wing conspiracy theories. When the coronavirus emerged, these networks facilitated the spread of conspiracy theories. Although the rise of conspiracy theories has historical parallels, there is no denying that Trump's presidency has played a significant role in their rapid emergence."
Although the rise of conspiracy theories has historical parallels, there is no denying that Trump's presidency has played a significant role in their rapid emergence.
Social media
Another new factor that enabled a rapid and global spread was the rise of social media. "If you have to spread your theory via pamphlets, you reach far fewer people than via social media," Joris says. One example is resistance to face masks. After all, they make sure you continue inhaling your own breath, which poisons you. This argument arose both during the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918 and during Corona. In 1918, the Anti-Mask League only reached out to San Francisco residents; in 2020, the theory went viral.
Conspiracy theories will always pop up during epidemics, nevertheless, which historical lessons can be learned for the next one? Timo says: "With the historical parallels and patterns in mind, you can guess what will happen in the next pandemic." Joris adds, "The government can better prepare the population for what is to come by providing accurate information before conspiracy theories emerge. However, you will not reach the people who already distrust the government with this." Timo: "The government would do better to avoid stigmatisation in the future and perhaps even impose social media restrictions to prevent the spread of conspiracy theories. Although, this action may increase distrust of the government."
text: Patrick Marx
Photographs: Harry Heuts